Annotation: Absolute poverty, also known as subsistence poverty, defines a condition where individuals or families lack the minimal resources to meet their basic needs for survival, including food, shelter, warmth, and safety. This standard is based on a minimum level of subsistence below which families should not be expected to exist. It signifies a severe deprivation of essential necessities required for human well-being. The measurement of absolute poverty often involves a fixed income threshold that remains constant over time, although the specific level can vary between countries based on their economic conditions. The World Bank defines extreme poverty as living on less than US $1.25 or $1.90 a day. While useful for tracking income changes over time, this measure may not fully capture the realities of living in poverty, such as the inability to buy in bulk or social and cultural needs.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Economic_And_Material_Inequality_Quality
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000019

Disjoint class(es): Feminisation_Of_Poverty,
                                Gender_Inequality,
                                Gender_Stratification,
                                Poverty,
                                Relative_Deprivation,
                                Relative_Poverty

Annotation: Achieved status refers to a social position that a person attains largely through their own efforts, skills, abilities, and choices. It is earned or chosen based on merit and reflects personal accomplishments. Examples include becoming an Olympic medalist, a college graduate, a technical professional, or even a criminal. This is in contrast to ascribed status, which is assigned at birth or is beyond an individual's control, such as race or sex. Achieved status comes with associated rights, obligations, behaviours, and duties expected of those in that position, known as roles. While ideally based on merit, the ability to achieve certain statuses can be influenced by ascribed statuses and cultural capital. Achieved status plays a significant role in open societies where social mobility, the ability to move up or down the social hierarchy, is possible.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Social_Role
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000023

Disjoint class(es): Ascribed_Status,
                                Gender_Role,
                                Master_Status,
                                Sick_Role,
                                Status

Annotation: Adoption is a legal process that allows for the permanent transfer of the legal rights, responsibilities, and privileges of parenthood to a new legal parent or parents from the biological or legal parents. Unlike guardianship, adoption is intended to create a permanent change in status, requiring societal recognition through legal or religious sanction. Historically, adoption practices often emphasised the adopter's political and economic interests, such as ensuring male heirs. However, modern adoption laws prioritise the child's welfare and development. Different types of adoption include foster care adoption, international adoption, and embryo adoption. Adoption is a complex process with emotional implications for adoptees, adoptive parents, and birth parents, often involving questions of identity and belonging. The evolution of adoption reflects changing societal values towards prioritizing the best interests of the child.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Institutional_And_Transformative_Socialisation_Process
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000015

Disjoint class(es): Degradation_Ceremony,
                                Resocialisation,
                                Self-fulfilling_Prophecy

Annotation: Affirmative action refers to actions favouring those who tend to suffer from discrimination, representing positive efforts to recruit minority group members or women for jobs, promotions, and educational opportunities. It aims to increase the representation of groups historically excluded from areas like employment and education. Unlike equal opportunity, which is passive, affirmative action is proactive, involving measures to avert discrimination. Policies may include preferential selection and monitoring workforce composition. Originating in the 1960s, affirmative action seeks to remedy past and present discrimination and promote diversity. However, it has faced debate, with opponents arguing it constitutes reverse discrimination, while proponents emphasise its necessity for addressing ongoing inequalities and fostering inclusion. The legal landscape surrounding affirmative action is complex and has evolved over time.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Global_Power_Relations_And_Cultural_Policy
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Apartheid,
                                Multiculturalism,
                                Neo-colonialism

Annotation: Ageing, or aging, is the combination of biological, psychological, and social processes that affect people as they grow older. Biologically, it involves physical maturation and changes in the body over time. Psychologically, it can involve shifts in cognitive function and emotional development. Sociologically, ageing entails changes in social roles, relationships, and societal expectations at different life stages. The experience of ageing is also shaped by cultural factors, with different societies having varying views on what it means to be a certain age. The human life course is often divided into stages like infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age, though these are somewhat arbitrary. Social gerontology is a field that specifically studies the social aspects of ageing.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Identity_Formation_And_Role_Development_Process
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000015

Disjoint class(es): Anticipatory_Socialisation,
                                Role_Exit,
                                Role_Taking,
                                Self-identity

Annotation: Ageism is discrimination or prejudice against a person on the grounds of age. While older people are the most common targets, younger individuals can also experience it. Ageism can manifest as institutional ageism through discriminatory policies, interpersonal ageism in social interactions, and internalised ageism where individuals adopt ageist beliefs about themselves. It is often rooted in negative stereotypes, such as the belief that older people are frail or incapable. Ageism is considered by some to be the last socially acceptable prejudice. It can negatively impact mental and physical health and may even be associated with earlier death. Efforts to combat ageism include policy changes, education, and intergenerational programs.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Discrimination_And_Marginalisation_Quality
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000019

Disjoint class(es): Anti-Semitism,
                                Homophobia,
                                Prejudice,
                                Racism

Annotation: Agencies of socialisation are groups or social contexts within which processes of socialisation take place. Socialisation is the lifelong process through which individuals learn the norms, values, beliefs, and behaviours of their society.[25, 26] The family is typically considered the primary agent of socialisation, having the most influence during early childhood, teaching basic social norms, values, language, and behaviour. Secondary agents of socialisation become more influential as individuals mature and include peer groups, schools, the media, religion, government, and the workplace. These agents contribute to learning societal expectations, academic knowledge, social skills, and professional roles. The community and neighborhood also play a role by providing opportunities for social interaction and learning local norms.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Population_And_Research_Aggregate
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000027

Disjoint class(es): Control_Group,
                                Convenience_Sample,
                                Experimental_Group,
                                Government,
                                Issei,
                                Luddite,
                                Natural_Environment,
                                Nisei,
                                Population,
                                Random_Sample,
                                Refugee,
                                Representative_Sample

Annotation: Aging Studies is an interdisciplinary field dedicated to the comprehensive examination of the multifaceted process of human aging. This academic domain draws insights from sociology, psychology, biology, public health, economics, and policy studies to understand the physiological, cognitive, emotional, and social changes that occur throughout the life course, particularly in later life. It focuses on the experiences of older adults, the social roles they occupy, the challenges they face (such as ageism, health issues, and retirement), and the societal responses to an increasingly aging population. Researchers in Aging Studies investigate topics like social support networks, elder care systems, generational differences, healthy aging initiatives, and the impact of demographic shifts on social institutions. The field also addresses the social construction of old age and the cultural perceptions of longevity, aiming to promote well-being and equitable policies for all age groups within society. It is crucial for informing public policy and promoting a nuanced understanding of later life.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Population_And_Demographic_Study
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Demography,
                                Gerontology,
                                Mortality

Annotation: An agrarian society is the most technologically advanced form of preindustrial society, where members are primarily engaged in the production of food but increase their crop yield through innovations such as the plow. It is any community whose economy is fundamentally based on the production and maintenance of crops and farmland, with agriculture serving as the primary source of wealth. Agrarian societies emerged after hunter-gatherer and horticultural societies, marking a transition to settled agricultural communities around 10,000 years ago. Key characteristics include a predominantly rural population, social hierarchies often based on land ownership, the use of agricultural technologies, and cultural practices tied to agricultural cycles. The surplus of food enabled population growth and the development of more complex social structures, including specialised occupations and trade.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Developmental_And_Economic_Society_Type
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000027

Disjoint class(es): Consumer_Society,
                                Horticultural_Society,
                                Hunting-and-gathering_Society,
                                Industrial_City,
                                Industrial_Society,
                                Mass_Society,
                                Pastoral_Society

Annotation: Alienation is the condition of being estranged or disassociated from the surrounding society. It involves a feeling of separation from one's milieu, work, the products of work, or self. The sense that our own abilities, as human beings, are taken over by other entities is also a key aspect. Sociologists like Marx described alienation in capitalist labor, where workers feel disconnected from their labor and its products. Durkheim focused on anomie, a state of normlessness leading to social alienation. Common variations of alienation include powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, cultural estrangement, social isolation, and self-estrangement. Alienation is a recurring theme in sociological analysis of modern life and is often depicted in literature and popular culture as psychological isolation.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Social_Experience_And_Condition_Quality
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000019

Disjoint class(es): Anomie,
                                Health,
                                Job_Insecurity,
                                Risk_Society

Annotation: Alternative_And_Nontraditional_Family_Form encompasses family structures that diverge from conventional nuclear or extended family models, representing the diversity and adaptability of family organisation in contemporary society. These aggregates reflect changing social norms, economic pressures, and cultural values that have expanded definitions of what constitutes a family beyond traditional biological and legal ties. They demonstrate how individuals create meaningful kinship networks and family-like relationships based on emotional bonds, mutual support, and shared commitment rather than solely on biological connection or legal recognition. These family forms often emerge in response to social marginalisation, economic necessity, or personal choice, highlighting the resilience and creativity of human social organisation in meeting fundamental needs for belonging, support, and care.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): Family_Of_Choice,
                         Single-parent_Family
Superclass(es): Family_And_Kinship_Aggregate
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000027

Disjoint class(es): Nuclear_And_Extended_Family_Unit

Annotation: Alternative_Cultural_Formations_And_Behaviour represents social phenomena that emerge as variations, challenges, or alternatives to dominant cultural patterns and mainstream social arrangements. This class encompasses subcultures that deliberately oppose mainstream values (Counterculture, Deviant_Subculture), alternative relationship arrangements that exist outside traditional marriage (Cohabitation), and dynamic cultural expressions that reflect temporary collective preferences (Fashion). It also includes informal behavioural norms that guide everyday social interaction (Folkway) and theoretical concepts that explain unintended social consequences (Latent_Function). These phenomena demonstrate the diversity and adaptability of human social organisation, showing how societies accommodate difference, manage deviance, and generate new forms of cultural expression. This grouping highlights the dynamic tension between conformity and innovation that characterises all social systems.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): Cohabitation,
                         Counterculture,
                         Deviant_Subculture,
                         Fashion,
                         Folkway,
                         Latent_Function
Superclass(es): Sociological_Social_Relationships_And_Organisation
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Cultural_Systems_And_Concept,
                                Kinship_And_Family_Organisation_System,
                                Social_Theory_And_Analysis_Framework

Annotation: Amalgamation is the process by which a majority group and a minority group combine through intermarriage to form a new group. This process, also known as miscegenation, involves biological and cultural merging, often leading to a new, unified group identity. The concept of a "melting pot" is often used to describe amalgamation, where different cultures blend to create an entirely new culture, unlike assimilation where one group adopts the dominant culture, or pluralism where groups coexist while retaining their distinct identities. Cultural amalgamation involves a mutual appreciation and integration of social norms, traditions, and both material and nonmaterial aspects of each contributing culture. Historically, laws against miscegenation existed, highlighting societal resistance to this process.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Sociological_Processes_of_Cultural_Exchange_and_Innovation
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000015

Disjoint class(es): Cultural_Reproduction,
                                Cultural_Transmission,
                                Diffusion,
                                Discovery,
                                Innovation,
                                Invention

Annotation: Animism is the belief that events in the world are mobilised by the activities of spirits, suggesting that inanimate objects, natural phenomena, and even abstract concepts possess a soul or spiritual essence. This belief system often involves the idea that spirits inhabit the natural world and influence human affairs. In animistic worldviews, spirits are not necessarily seen as supernatural beings separate from the material world but rather as integral parts of it. These spirits can be benevolent, malevolent, or neutral, and they may require appeasement or interaction through rituals and offerings. Animism is a broad category encompassing diverse beliefs and practices found in many indigenous cultures around the world. It often forms the basis of traditional religions and can influence various aspects of life, including social customs, moral codes, and explanations of natural events. The concept of animism was notably explored by early anthropologists like Sir Edward Tylor, who considered it to be the earliest form of religious belief.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Sociological_Cultural_Belief_System
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Creationism,
                                Fundamentalism,
                                Monotheism,
                                Polytheism,
                                Reincarnation,
                                Religious_Belief,
                                Theism,
                                Totemism

Annotation: Anomie is a sociological concept, primarily associated with Emile Durkheim, that describes a state of normlessness or social disorganisation within a society or a social group. It occurs when there is a breakdown or absence of clear moral guidelines, social norms, and shared values, leading to a sense of confusion, disorientation, and lack of social regulation among individuals. Durkheim argued that rapid social change, such as industrialisation or economic crises, can disrupt traditional social bonds and norms, thereby contributing to anomie. When individuals experience anomie, they may feel disconnected from society, lack a sense of purpose, and be unsure of what behaviours are expected or appropriate. This state can lead to various negative consequences, including increased rates of deviance, crime, despair, and suicide, as individuals struggle to find meaning and direction in a deregulated social environment. Robert Merton later expanded on the concept, applying it to the strain individuals feel when culturally prescribed goals are not attainable through legitimate means.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Social_Experience_And_Condition_Quality
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000019

Disjoint class(es): Alienation,
                                Health,
                                Job_Insecurity,
                                Risk_Society

Annotation: The anomie theory of deviance, developed by Robert Merton, explains deviance as an adaptation either of socially prescribed goals or of the norms governing their attainment, or both. This theory posits that societal norms and values can create strain or anomie when individuals are unable to achieve culturally valued goals through legitimate means. Merton identified five modes of adaptation to this strain: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion. Conformity involves accepting both the goals and the means to achieve them. Innovation involves accepting the goals but rejecting the legitimate means, often resorting to deviant behaviour to achieve success. Ritualism occurs when individuals abandon the pursuit of societal goals but rigidly adhere to the established norms. Retreatism involves rejecting both the goals and the means, often leading to social withdrawal. Rebellion involves rejecting the existing goals and means and attempting to replace them with new ones. Merton's theory highlights how social structures can unintentionally lead to deviance by creating a disconnect between cultural goals and the available means to achieve them.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Sociological_Theories_of_Deviance_And_Control
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Control_Theory,
                                Labeling_Theory,
                                Routine_Activities_Theory,
                                Social_Constructionist_Perspective,
                                Societal-reaction_Approach

Annotation: Antisemitism or Jew-hatred is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who harbours it is called an antisemite. Whether antisemitism is considered a form of racism depends on the school of thought. Antisemitic tendencies may be motivated primarily by negative sentiment towards Jews as a people or negative sentiment towards Jews with regard to Judaism. In the former case, usually known as racial antisemitism, a person's hostility is driven by the belief that Jews constitute a distinct race with inherent traits or characteristics that are repulsive or inferior to the preferred traits or characteristics within that person's society. In the latter case, known as religious antisemitism, a person's hostility is driven by their religion's perception of Jews and Judaism, typically encompassing doctrines of supersession that expect or demand Jews to turn away from Judaism and submit to the religion presenting itself as Judaism's successor faith—this is a common theme within the other Abrahamic religions.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Discrimination_And_Marginalisation_Quality
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000019

Disjoint class(es): Ageism,
                                Homophobia,
                                Prejudice,
                                Racism

Annotation: Anticipatory socialisation refers to the processes of socialisation in which a person "rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social relationships. This involves learning the norms, values, and behaviours associated with a status or role that the individual expects to occupy in the future. By engaging in anticipatory socialisation, individuals can prepare themselves for the challenges and expectations of new roles, making the transition smoother when they eventually occupy those positions. Examples include teenagers who start dressing or behaving in ways they associate with adulthood, or students who take on internships to learn about a future profession. This process can help individuals develop the necessary skills and understanding to navigate new social environments and fulfill the requirements of future roles effectively. It plays a crucial role in facilitating social mobility and adaptation to changing life circumstances.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Identity_Formation_And_Role_Development_Process
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000015

Disjoint class(es): Ageing,
                                Role_Exit,
                                Role_Taking,
                                Self-identity

Annotation: Apartheid was the former policy of the South African government designed to maintain the separation of Blacks and other non-Whites from the dominant Whites. This system of racial segregation and discrimination was implemented through legislation that classified people into racial groups and enforced their separation in all aspects of life, including housing, education, employment, healthcare, and political participation. The apartheid regime systematically privileged the White minority and subjected the Black majority to severe oppression and denial of basic human rights. This policy was in effect from 1948 to 1994 and drew widespread international condemnation, leading to various sanctions and boycotts against South Africa. The dismantling of apartheid began in the early 1990s with the release of Nelson Mandela and the subsequent reforms that led to multiracial elections and the establishment of a democratic government in South Africa. The legacy of apartheid continues to impact South African society, with ongoing efforts to address the deep-seated inequalities and social divisions created by this discriminatory system.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Global_Power_Relations_And_Cultural_Policy
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Affirmative_Action,
                                Multiculturalism,
                                Neo-colonialism

Annotation: Applied_And_Institutional_Study encompasses sociological domains that examine major social institutions and organised collective activities that structure contemporary social life. These fields analyse how formal and informal institutions shape social behaviour, distribute resources and power, and respond to social challenges and changes. The domain emphasises the intersection between institutional structures and social action, examining how organisations, movements, and institutional arrangements both constrain and enable human agency. These studies contribute to understanding how societies organise themselves around fundamental challenges such as governance, health, communication, environmental sustainability, and social change. They bridge academic sociology with practical applications, often informing policy development and institutional reform. The domain recognises that modern societies are characterised by complex institutional arrangements that require specialised analytical attention. These fields collectively examine how institutions mediate between individual experience and broader social structures, analysing the dynamics of institutional change, the relationship between formal and informal institutional arrangements, and the ways institutions both reproduce and transform social relationships and power structures in contemporary societies.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): Environmental_Sociology,
                         Government_And_Politics,
                         Healthcare,
                         Media_And_Communication,
                         Social_Movements_And_Collective_Behaviour
Superclass(es): Sociological_Academic_Disciplines_And_Field
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Meta-Disciplinary_And_Foundational_Study,
                                Population_And_Demographic_Study,
                                Spatial_And_Environmental_Study,
                                Specialised_Sociological_Subfield

Annotation: Applied social research is research which aims not just to understand a social problem, but also to make a contribution to solving it. Unlike basic research, which focuses on expanding fundamental knowledge, applied research is directed towards addressing specific real-world issues and informing practical solutions. Much criminological research, for example, is applied research, aiming to reduce levels of crime through the study of its causes and effective interventions. Applied social research is a feature of all social science disciplines and often demands the involvement of multi-disciplinary teams to tackle complex social problems effectively. This type of research can involve evaluating the effectiveness of social programs, developing new interventions, or informing policy decisions to improve social outcomes. The findings from applied research are intended to have practical implications and contribute to positive social change.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Research_Design_And_Methodological_Principle
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Causal_Logic,
                                Causation,
                                Hypothesis,
                                Operational_Definition,
                                Research_Design,
                                Research_Method,
                                Research_Principle,
                                Scientific_Method

Annotation: Argot refers to the specialised language used by members of a group or subculture. This jargon or slang serves to distinguish members of the group from outsiders and can reinforce group identity and cohesion. Argot often includes unique vocabulary, expressions, and meanings that are understood by those within the group but may be incomprehensible to others. It can develop in various social contexts, such as among occupational groups, criminal subcultures, hobbyist communities, or even within specific age groups. The use of argot can facilitate communication among group members, create a sense of exclusivity, and signal belonging. It can also evolve over time as the group's activities, interests, and social dynamics change. Studying argot can provide insights into the values, norms, and social structure of a particular group or subculture.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Sociological_Abstract_Social_Concept
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Black_Power,
                                Concentric-zone_Theory,
                                Differential_Association,
                                Equilibrium_Model,
                                Face-work,
                                Looking-glass_Self,
                                Manifest_Function,
                                Materialist_Conception_Of_History,
                                Reflexivity

Annotation: Ascribed status is a social position "assigned" to a person by society without regard for the person's unique talents or characteristics. It is a status that is beyond an individual's control, often based on factors such as race, ethnicity, sex, age, family background, or birth order. Unlike achieved status, which is earned through personal effort, ascribed status is something an individual is born with or involuntarily acquires. While ascribed statuses may not directly reflect an individual's abilities or efforts, they can significantly influence their opportunities and social interactions within a society. For example, in many societies, gender and race are ascribed statuses that can lead to differential treatment and expectations. The relative importance of ascribed versus achieved status varies across societies and over time, with modern societies often emphasizing achieved status as a basis for social standing, although ascribed statuses continue to play a significant role in social stratification.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Social_Role
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000023

Disjoint class(es): Achieved_Status,
                                Gender_Role,
                                Master_Status,
                                Sick_Role,
                                Status

Annotation: Authority is power that has been institutionalised and is recognised by the people over whom it is exercised. It is a form of legitimate power, meaning that those subject to it accept its rightfulness. Sociologist Max Weber identified three main types of authority: traditional authority, charismatic authority, and rational-legal authority. Traditional authority is based on long-established customs and traditions, often associated with hereditary leadership. Charismatic authority stems from the exceptional personal qualities or appeal of a leader, inspiring devotion and obedience. Rational-legal authority is based on formal rules, laws, and procedures, typically associated with bureaucratic systems and elected officials. The recognition and acceptance of authority are crucial for maintaining social order and stability within a society. When power is perceived as legitimate authority, it is more likely to be obeyed and less likely to be challenged.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Authority_And_Power_Disposition
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000016

Disjoint class(es): Charismatic_Authority,
                                Legal-rational_Authority,
                                Power,
                                Traditional_Authority

Annotation: Authority_And_Power_Disposition encompasses the fundamental capacities and tendencies through which social actors exercise influence, control, and legitimate dominance within social systems. This class includes the general disposition for exercising will over others (Power), the institutionalised and recognised forms of legitimate power (Authority), and the specific manifestations of legitimate authority based on different sources of legitimacy: traditional customs and hereditary status (Traditional_Authority), exceptional personal appeal and extraordinary qualities (Charismatic_Authority), and formal rules and bureaucratic procedures (Legal-rational_Authority). These dispositions represent the core mechanisms through which social order is maintained, decisions are made, and social hierarchies are established and sustained. The variation within this class reflects different cultural and institutional approaches to organizing legitimate power relations, from personal charisma to bureaucratic rationality to customary tradition.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): Authority,
                         Charismatic_Authority,
                         Legal-rational_Authority,
                         Power,
                         Traditional_Authority
Superclass(es): Social_Science_Disposition
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000016

Disjoint class(es): Sexual_And_Gender_Disposition_Orientation,
                                Social_Cognitive_And_behavioural_Disposition

Annotation: In the context of Erving Goffman's dramaturgical theory, the back region is an area away from 'front region' performances. It is where individuals can relax their public image, step out of their roles, and behave more spontaneously. The back region is characterised by informality, where performers can prepare for their front stage performances, discuss them with fellow performers, and contradict the impression they present to the audience. This space allows for behaviours that might be considered inappropriate or inconsistent with the front stage persona. The contrast between the front and back regions highlights the conscious effort individuals make to manage impressions in social interactions.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Social_Social_Spatial_Region
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000006

Disjoint class(es): Cyberspace,
                                Defended_Neighborhood,
                                Megalopolis,
                                Metropolis,
                                Postindustrial_City,
                                Preindustrial_City,
                                Public_Sphere,
                                Squatter_Settlement,
                                Suburb

Annotation: Bilateral descent is a kinship system in which both sides of a person's family are regarded as equally important in determining familial relationships and inheritance. This means that an individual traces their ancestry and kinship ties through both their mother's and father's sides of the family. In societies with bilateral descent, there is no strong emphasis on either the paternal or maternal line; both are considered equally significant. This system is common in many modern Western societies. It contrasts with unilineal descent systems, such as patrilineal descent (where kinship is traced through the father's line) and matrilineal descent (where kinship is traced through the mother's line), where one side of the family is considered more important than the other. Bilateral descent often leads to a wider network of recognised relatives compared to unilineal systems.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Kinship_And_Family_Organisation_System
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Descent,
                                Familism

Annotation: Bilingualism refers to the use of two or more languages in particular settings, such as workplaces or educational facilities, treating each language as equally legitimate. It can also refer to an individual's ability to speak and understand two or more languages fluently. In a broader sense, multilingualism encompasses the use of more than two languages. Bilingualism can have significant social, cultural, and cognitive benefits, fostering communication and understanding between different linguistic groups. In societies with diverse populations, bilingualism in institutions can promote inclusivity and equal access to services and opportunities. The recognition of multiple languages as equally legitimate acknowledges the value and importance of linguistic diversity.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Social_Cognitive_And_behavioural_Disposition
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000016

Disjoint class(es): Ethnocentrism,
                                Expressiveness,
                                Instrumentality,
                                Life_Chance,
                                Monopoly,
                                Push_And_Pull_Factor,
                                Rationality,
                                Sociological_Imagination,
                                Vested_Interest

Annotation: Biographical methods involve research techniques that focus on collecting and analysing data related to individual lives or life experiences. These methods often include oral histories, where individuals recount their life stories in interviews; life stories, which are narrative accounts of a person's life, either told by themselves or others; autobiographies, which are self-written accounts of one's own life; and biographies, which are accounts of someone's life written by another person. Biographical methods aim to understand social phenomena from the perspective of individuals and to explore the meanings they attach to their experiences. They are particularly useful for studying life course transitions, personal narratives, and the impact of social and historical contexts on individual lives.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Qualitative_Research_Approaches_And_Method
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Biographical_Research,
                                Documentary_Research,
                                Dramaturgical_Analysis,
                                Dramaturgical_Approach,
                                Ethnography,
                                Life_History,
                                Qualitative_Research,
                                Qualitative_Research_Method

Annotation: Biographical research is a qualitative research approach that takes individual lives or life histories as its main focus of interest. It seeks to understand the social world through the detailed examination of personal experiences and the stories people tell about their lives. This type of research often involves in-depth interviews, analysis of personal documents (such as letters or diaries), and sometimes ethnographic observations to gain a rich and holistic understanding of the individual's life within their social context. Biographical research can provide valuable insights into social processes, cultural norms, and the ways individuals shape and are shaped by their social environments. It is used in various social science disciplines, including sociology, psychology, and anthropology, to explore topics such as identity formation, social change, and the impact of historical events on personal lives.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Qualitative_Research_Approaches_And_Method
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Biographical_Method,
                                Documentary_Research,
                                Dramaturgical_Analysis,
                                Dramaturgical_Approach,
                                Ethnography,
                                Life_History,
                                Qualitative_Research,
                                Qualitative_Research_Method

Annotation: Birthrate, also known as the crude birthrate, is the number of live births per 1,000 population in a given year. It is a basic measure of fertility in a population. The birthrate is influenced by various social, economic, and cultural factors, including the age and sex structure of the population, the average age at which people have children, the availability of contraception, cultural norms around family size, and economic conditions. A high birthrate can contribute to population growth, while a low birthrate may lead to population decline if not offset by immigration. Birthrates vary significantly across different countries and regions, reflecting diverse social and developmental contexts.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Demographic_And_Biological_Identity_Quality
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000019

Disjoint class(es): Crude_Birth_Rate,
                                Crude_Death_Rate,
                                Death_Rate,
                                Life-span,
                                Life_Expectancy,
                                Sex,
                                Sex_Ratio,
                                Total_Fertility_Rate_(TFR)

Annotation: Bisexual describes an orientation of sexual activities or feelings towards other people of either sex (both men and women). It is one of the main categories of sexual orientation, alongside heterosexual (attraction to the opposite sex) and homosexual (attraction to the same sex). Bisexuality is characterised by attraction to more than one gender, although the degree and nature of attraction can vary among individuals who identify as bisexual. It is important to recognise bisexuality as a distinct and valid sexual orientation, not merely a transitional phase or an equal attraction to both sexes. The understanding and acceptance of bisexuality have evolved over time, and it continues to be a topic of discussion and increasing visibility in contemporary society.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Sexual_And_Gender_Disposition_Orientation
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000016

Disjoint class(es): Homosexuality,
                                Lesbianism,
                                Sexual_Orientation

Annotation: Black power is a political philosophy promoted by many younger Blacks in the 1960s that supported the creation of Black-controlled political and economic institutions. This movement emerged during the Civil Rights era, advocating for self-determination, racial pride, and the development of Black political and economic power to achieve equality and liberation. It represented a shift from earlier strategies of nonviolent integration to a more assertive stance emphasizing Black autonomy and the need to address systemic racism and oppression. The Black Power movement encompassed a range of ideologies and goals, including Black nationalism, Black separatism, and Black self-reliance. It led to the formation of various organisations and initiatives aimed at empowering Black communities and challenging racial inequality in the United States. The legacy of the Black Power movement continues to influence discussions about race, identity, and social justice today.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Sociological_Abstract_Social_Concept
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Argot,
                                Concentric-zone_Theory,
                                Differential_Association,
                                Equilibrium_Model,
                                Face-work,
                                Looking-glass_Self,
                                Manifest_Function,
                                Materialist_Conception_Of_History,
                                Reflexivity

Annotation: Bourgeoisie, in the theory of Karl Marx, refers to the capitalist class, comprising the owners of the means of production, such as factories, land, and capital. In capitalist society, the bourgeoisie stands in opposition to the proletariat, or working class, who do not own the means of production and must sell their labor power to the bourgeoisie in order to survive.[1, 2] According to Marx, the bourgeoisie's primary goal is the accumulation of capital and profit, which they achieve through the exploitation of the proletariat. This class structure and the inherent conflict between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat are central to Marx's critique of capitalism.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Stratification_And_Class_Aggregate
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000027

Disjoint class(es): Capitalist,
                                Class,
                                Proletariat,
                                Social_Class,
                                Underclass,
                                Upper_Class,
                                Working_Class

Annotation: Bureaucracy is an organisation of a hierarchical sort, which takes the form of a pyramid of authority, with clear lines of command and responsibility. The term 'bureaucracy' was popularised by Max Weber, who considered it the most efficient type of large-scale human organisation in modern society. According to Weber, bureaucracy is characterised by a division of labor, a clearly defined hierarchy, formal rules and regulations, impersonality, and a focus on technical competence. As organisations grow in size and complexity, Weber argued, they inevitably tend to become more and more bureaucratised to manage their operations effectively.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Economic_And_Corporate_Organisation
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000027

Disjoint class(es): Formal_Organisation,
                                Health_Maintenance_Org,
                                Multinational_Corporation,
                                Organisation

Annotation: Bureaucratisation is the process by which a group, organisation, or social movement becomes increasingly bureaucratic in its structure and operation. This involves the adoption of the characteristics of a bureaucracy, such as hierarchical organisation, formal rules and procedures, specialisation of tasks, and impersonal relationships. Bureaucratisation often occurs as organisations grow and seek greater efficiency and standardisation in their activities. While it can lead to increased efficiency, it can also result in rigidity, red tape, and a decrease in flexibility and personal initiative.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Organisational_And_Societal_Rationalisation_Process
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000015

Disjoint class(es): Modernisation,
                                Rationalisation,
                                Rationalisation_Of_Society

Annotation: Capital punishment is the state-sanctioned execution of a person who has been convicted of a crime that is punishable by death. Commonly known as the 'death penalty', it is a highly debated topic with strong ethical, moral, and legal arguments both for and against its use. Proponents often argue for its effectiveness as a deterrent to crime and as a just retribution for heinous offenses, while opponents raise concerns about its irreversibility, potential for error, and moral implications, often citing issues of human rights and cruel and unusual punishment. The application of capital punishment varies significantly across countries and jurisdictions, with differing views on which crimes warrant such a severe penalty.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Social_Control_And_Response_Process
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000015

Disjoint class(es): Discrimination,
                                Hate_Crime,
                                Rehabilitation,
                                Segregation,
                                Sexual_Harassment,
                                Social_Exclusion,
                                Strike,
                                Victimisation

Annotation: Capitalism is a system of economic enterprise based on market exchange, private ownership of the means of production, and the pursuit of profit. 'Capital' refers to any asset, including money, property, and machines, which can be used to produce commodities for sale or invested in a market with the hope of achieving a profit. Key features of capitalism include free markets, competition, wage labor, and the accumulation of capital. While it can drive innovation and economic growth, capitalism has also been criticised for its potential to create social inequalities and economic instability. Karl Marx argued that capitalism leads to alienation of workers from their labor and the products they produce.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Comprehensive_Economic_System_Model
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Communism,
                                Economic_System,
                                Economy,
                                Laissez-faire,
                                Socialism

Annotation: Capitalist are those who own companies, land, or stocks and shares, using these assets to generate economic returns or profits through investment and production. In a capitalist system, capitalists control the means of production and employ workers to produce goods and services, aiming to maximise their profits. They play a central role in the economy by investing capital and taking risks in the pursuit of economic growth. The relationship between capitalists and workers is often characterised by an imbalance of power, as capitalists own the resources necessary for production and workers depend on them for employment and wages.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Stratification_And_Class_Aggregate
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000027

Disjoint class(es): Bourgeoisie,
                                Class,
                                Proletariat,
                                Social_Class,
                                Underclass,
                                Upper_Class,
                                Working_Class

Annotation: Causal logic refers to the relationship between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event or factor leading to the other in a predictable way. It involves understanding the mechanisms through which a cause produces its effect. Establishing causal logic in social research requires demonstrating correlation, temporal order (the cause precedes the effect), and the absence of spurious relationships (where a third variable might be responsible for the observed association). Identifying causal relationships is a key goal of sociological analysis, as it allows for explanations of social phenomena and the development of effective interventions to address social problems.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Research_Design_And_Methodological_Principle
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Applied_Social_Research,
                                Causation,
                                Hypothesis,
                                Operational_Definition,
                                Research_Design,
                                Research_Method,
                                Research_Principle,
                                Scientific_Method

Annotation: Causation refers to the causal influence of one factor on another, where a change in one variable directly produces a change in another. Causal factors in sociology include the reasons individuals give for what they do, as well as external influences on their behaviour, such as social structures, cultural norms, and economic conditions. Establishing causation in sociological research is often challenging due to the complexity of social phenomena and the difficulty of isolating specific causes. Researchers use various methods, including experiments, surveys, and statistical analysis, to try to identify and understand causal relationships between social variables. Understanding causation is crucial for developing sociological theories and for informing social policies aimed at creating positive social change.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Research_Design_And_Methodological_Principle
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Applied_Social_Research,
                                Causal_Logic,
                                Hypothesis,
                                Operational_Definition,
                                Research_Design,
                                Research_Method,
                                Research_Principle,
                                Scientific_Method

Annotation: A census is an enumeration, or counting, of a population, typically conducted by a government at regular intervals. It aims to gather comprehensive demographic, social, and economic data about all individuals residing within a country or region at a specific point in time. The information collected in a census can include age, sex, race, ethnicity, education level, occupation, income, and household characteristics. This data is crucial for various purposes, such as allocating government resources, determining political representation, and informing policy decisions. The methodology of a census can vary, but it often involves distributing questionnaires to households or conducting door-to-door surveys. Ensuring accuracy and completeness in a census can be challenging due to factors like population mobility and reluctance to participate. Modern censuses often utilise technology to improve data collection and processing.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Data_Collection_And_Fieldwork_Process
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000015

Disjoint class(es): Interview,
                                Observation,
                                Oral_History,
                                Participant_Observation,
                                Snowball_Sampling

Annotation: Charismatic authority, as defined by Max Weber, is a type of power made legitimate by a leader's exceptional personal or emotional appeal to their followers. This authority rests on the extraordinary qualities or perceived heroism of an individual, which inspire devotion, trust, and obedience in their followers. Unlike traditional authority, which is based on established customs, or rational-legal authority, which is based on rules and laws, charismatic authority is highly personal and often emerges during times of social upheaval or crisis. Leaders with charismatic authority may possess exceptional speaking abilities, a compelling vision, or a perceived connection to a higher power. However, charismatic authority can be unstable and often depends on the continued belief and support of the followers in the leader's unique qualities. It typically needs to be routinised into either traditional or rational-legal authority to ensure its long-term stability and continuity after the charismatic leader is gone.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Authority_And_Power_Disposition
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000016

Disjoint class(es): Authority,
                                Legal-rational_Authority,
                                Power,
                                Traditional_Authority

Annotation: A church is a large body of people belonging to an established religious organisation. Churches normally have a formal structure, with a hierarchy of religious officials, and the term is also used for the building where their religious ceremonials are held. Churches tend to be well-integrated into the broader society and often have a significant influence on social norms and values. They typically have a long history and established doctrines and practices. In sociological terms, a church is often contrasted with other types of religious organisations, such as sects and cults, which tend to be smaller, less formally organised, and may have more unconventional beliefs or practices. Churches often play a role in providing social services, education, and community support to their members.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Religious_Organisation
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000027

Disjoint class(es): Denomination,
                                Ecclesia,
                                New_Religious_Movement_(NRM)_Or_Cult,
                                Sect

Annotation: In sociology, the term 'class' is used by Max Weber to refer to a group of people who have a similar level of wealth and income. Weber's concept of class also includes factors such as occupation and market situation, reflecting an individual's economic opportunities and life chances. While Marx focused primarily on the ownership of the means of production as the basis of class, Weber provided a more multidimensional view, distinguishing between class (economic position), status (social prestige or honor), and power (political influence). According to Weber, these three dimensions of social stratification can intersect and influence an individual's overall position in society. The study of class remains a central topic in sociology, with researchers examining its impact on various aspects of social life, including health, education, and political behaviour.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Stratification_And_Class_Aggregate
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000027

Disjoint class(es): Bourgeoisie,
                                Capitalist,
                                Proletariat,
                                Social_Class,
                                Underclass,
                                Upper_Class,
                                Working_Class

Annotation: In Karl Marx's view, class consciousness is a subjective awareness held by members of a class regarding their common vested interests and need for collective political action to bring about social change. Marx argued that for the proletariat (working class) to overcome their exploitation by the bourgeoisie (capitalist class), they needed to develop an understanding of their shared economic situation and their common interests in challenging the capitalist system. This awareness would then lead to collective action, such as organizing into labor unions and engaging in political struggle, to ultimately transform society and establish a communist system where the means of production are collectively owned. The development of class consciousness is a crucial step in Marx's theory of social change.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Social_And_Political_Consciousness_Quality
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000019

Disjoint class(es): False_Consciousness,
                                Legitimacy

Annotation: A class system is a form of social ranking based primarily on economic position in which achieved characteristics can influence mobility. Unlike caste systems, where social position is ascribed at birth and cannot be changed, class systems allow for social mobility, the movement of individuals or groups up or down the social hierarchy, based on factors such as education, occupation, and income (achieved characteristics). While economic factors are central to class systems, social status and power also play a role. Class systems are characteristic of modern industrial societies and are considered more open than caste systems, although the extent of social mobility can vary significantly. Sociologists often study class systems to understand patterns of inequality and the factors that influence social mobility.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Sociological_Classification_And_Categorisation_Concept
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Gender,
                                Gender_Order,
                                Gender_Relation,
                                Status_Set,
                                Stereotype,
                                Stigma,
                                Subculture,
                                Youth_Culture

Annotation: A coalition is a temporary or permanent alliance geared toward a common goal, often formed by individuals or groups who may have different interests or goals in other areas but come together to achieve a specific shared objective. Coalitions can be found in various social contexts, including politics, business, and social movements. They are often formed to increase the collective power and influence of the participating members in order to achieve a goal that might be difficult or impossible to achieve individually. The stability and effectiveness of a coalition can depend on factors such as the clarity of the common goal, the commitment of the members, and the distribution of power within the alliance. Coalitions can be fluid and may dissolve once the shared goal is achieved or if internal conflicts arise.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Formal_And_Voluntary_Organisation
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000027

Disjoint class(es): Interest_Group,
                                Labour_Union,
                                Political_Action_Committee_(PAC),
                                Trade_Union

Annotation: Jean Piaget's cognitive theory of development explains how children's thought progresses through four distinct stages, each characterised by different ways of understanding and interacting with the world. The first stage, the sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years), involves learning through senses and motor actions. The preoperational stage (about 2 to 7 years) is marked by the development of symbolic thought and language but also by egocentrism and a lack of logical reasoning. The concrete operational stage (about 7 to 11 years) sees the development of logical thinking about concrete events and objects, including the understanding of conservation. Finally, the formal operational stage (from about 12 years and into adulthood) involves the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically. Piaget's theory emphasises that cognitive development is a continuous process of adaptation through assimilation (incorporating new information into existing schemas) and accommodation (modifying existing schemas to fit new information).
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Individual_Development_And_Interaction_Theory
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Cornucopian_Theory,
                                Disengagement_Theory,
                                Multiple-nuclei_Theory,
                                Sapir-Whorf_Hypothesis,
                                Sociobiology,
                                Symbolic_Interactionism

Annotation: Cohabitation is the practice of living together as a male-female couple in an intimate relationship without being legally married. This living arrangement has become increasingly common in many Western societies since the late 20th century. Cohabitation can occur for various reasons, including as a precursor to marriage, as an alternative to marriage, or as a trial period for a relationship. The legal rights and responsibilities of cohabiting couples are generally different from those of married couples, although some jurisdictions have laws in place to protect the rights of cohabiting partners, particularly after a certain period of time. The social acceptance of cohabitation has also grown significantly, and it is no longer viewed as negatively as it once was in many cultures.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Alternative_Cultural_Formations_And_behaviour
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Counterculture,
                                Deviant_Subculture,
                                Fashion,
                                Folkway,
                                Latent_Function

Annotation: Collective behaviour encompasses activities of people and social groups that typically emerge spontaneously (such as crowds, riots, and so on) rather than arising from established processes of socialisation leading to conformity to social rules and norms. These behaviours often occur in response to a shared situation or stimulus and can involve large numbers of people acting in relatively unstructured ways. Examples of collective behaviour include panics, fads, rumors, social movements, and disasters. Sociologists study collective behaviour to understand the dynamics of group actions that are not governed by typical social structures or institutions. Factors such as anonymity, suggestibility, and the rapid spread of information can play a significant role in shaping collective behaviour.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Social_Deviance_And_Norm_Violation_Process
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000015

Disjoint class(es): Deviance,
                                Underground_Economy,
                                Victimless_Crime

Annotation: Collective_Causal_Event represents complex social phenomena that emerge from the coordinated interaction of multiple social entities, processes, and conditions acting together to produce significant sociological outcomes. These events transcend simple binary relationships by capturing the multidimensional causal networks inherent in social reality, where individual actors, institutional structures, cultural forces, and historical contexts converge to generate observable social changes. Unlike atomic social events, collective causal events embody the systemic nature of social causation, where emergent properties arise from the dynamic interplay between diverse social elements. This class provides the ontological foundation for modelling complex sociological relationships that require multiple participants, conditions, and causal pathways to adequately represent their full explanatory scope, enabling more nuanced analysis of how social transformation occurs through interconnected webs of influence rather than isolated causal chains.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Sociology
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000001

Disjoint class(es): Social_Object_Aggregate,
                                Social_Process_General,
                                Social_Role,
                                Social_Science_Disposition,
                                Social_Social_Spatial_Region,
                                Sociological_Concepts_And_Theory,
                                Sociological_Material_Entity,
                                Sociological_Quality

Annotation: Colonialism is the maintenance of political, social, economic, and cultural dominance over a people by a foreign power for an extended period of time. This often involves the establishment of settlements and the exploitation of resources in the colonised territory for the benefit of the colonizing power. Colonialism has had a profound and lasting impact on the political, economic, and social structures of many regions around the world, leading to significant cultural changes and often resulting in inequalities and conflicts that persist even after the end of colonial rule. The motivations for colonialism have varied throughout history, including economic gain, political power, strategic advantage, and the spread of religious or cultural beliefs. The study of colonialism examines its historical roots, its various forms and impacts, and its enduring legacies in the contemporary world.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Social_Control_And_Collective_Action_Framework
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Informal_Social_Control,
                                Institutional_Discrimination,
                                New_Social_Movement

Annotation: As an ideal type, communism is an economic system under which all property is communally owned, and no social distinctions are made based on people's ability to produce. In its theoretical form, as envisioned by Karl Marx, communism represents a stateless, classless society where resources are distributed based on need ("from each according to his ability, to each according to his need"). Private property is abolished, and the means of production are owned by the community as a whole. While various political movements and states have identified as communist, the ideal type of a fully communist society has never been fully realised in practice. These attempts have often involved authoritarian rule and state control over the economy and social life.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Comprehensive_Economic_System_Model
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Capitalism,
                                Economic_System,
                                Economy,
                                Laissez-faire,
                                Socialism

Annotation: Comparative research is a research methodology that compares one set of findings on one society with the same type of findings on other societies. This approach allows sociologists to identify similarities and differences across different social contexts, providing insights into the generalizability of findings and the influence of specific cultural or institutional factors. By examining social phenomena in multiple settings, comparative research can help to develop broader sociological theories and understand the diversity of human social behaviour. It can involve comparing different countries, regions within a country, or different groups within a society. Methodological rigor is crucial in comparative research to ensure that the comparisons are valid and meaningful, taking into account potential cultural and contextual differences in the meaning and measurement of social variables.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Quantitative_Research_And_Data_Collection_Method
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Content_Analysis,
                                Mixed_Method,
                                Quantitative_Research_Method,
                                Secondary_Analysis,
                                Survey,
                                Victimisation_Survey,
                                Vital_Statistics

Annotation: Comprehensive_Economic_System_Model encompasses complete economic systems and ideologies that provide holistic frameworks for organizing production, distribution, and consumption within society. These realizable entities represent distinct approaches to economic organisation that can be instantiated across entire societies or major sectors of societies. They include both market-based systems that emphasise private ownership and competition, and collective systems that prioritise public ownership and social planning. These models differ fundamentally in their approach to property rights, resource allocation, and the role of government in economic affairs. Each system embodies particular values about equality, efficiency, individual freedom, and collective welfare. Understanding these comprehensive models is essential for analysing different approaches to economic organisation and their implications for social structure, inequality, and human welfare.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): Capitalism,
                         Communism,
                         Economic_System,
                         Economy,
                         Laissez-faire,
                         Socialism
Superclass(es): Sociological_Economic_Systems_And_Ideology
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Labor_Market_And_Economic_Relationship_Model,
                                Production_And_Organisational_Economic_Model

Annotation: The concentric-zone theory is a theory of urban growth that sees growth in terms of a series of rings radiating from the central business district. Developed by Ernest Burgess in the 1920s, this model suggests that cities expand outward from a central point in a pattern of concentric zones, each with distinct social and economic characteristics. The innermost zone is typically the central business district, followed by a zone of transition characterised by mixed residential and commercial uses and often experiencing social problems. Subsequent zones include working-class housing, middle-class residential areas, and finally, the commuter zone in the outer suburbs. While this model has been influential, it has also been criticised for its oversimplification of urban patterns and its limited applicability to cities outside of the early 20th-century American context.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Sociological_Abstract_Social_Concept
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Argot,
                                Black_Power,
                                Differential_Association,
                                Equilibrium_Model,
                                Face-work,
                                Looking-glass_Self,
                                Manifest_Function,
                                Materialist_Conception_Of_History,
                                Reflexivity

Annotation: The conflict perspective is a major sociological approach that assumes that social behaviour is best understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups over scarce resources. Unlike the functionalist perspective, which emphasises social harmony and stability, the conflict perspective highlights power struggles, inequality, and social change as inherent features of society. Key theorists associated with the conflict perspective include Karl Marx, who focused on class conflict, and Max Weber, who considered conflict arising from differences in class, status, and power. Contemporary conflict theorists examine various sources of social conflict, including those based on race, ethnicity, gender, age, and other forms of social inequality. This perspective views social institutions and social order as often reflecting the interests of the dominant groups in society.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Social_Conflict_And_Inequality_Theory
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Conflict_Theory,
                                Contact_Hypothesis,
                                Exploitation_Theory,
                                Marxist_Theory,
                                New_Urban_Sociology

Annotation: Conflict theories represent a sociological perspective that focuses on the inherent tensions, divisions, and competing interests present in human societies. Unlike functionalist perspectives that emphasise social harmony, conflict theorists believe that the scarcity and value of resources in society inevitably produce conflict as different groups struggle to gain access to and control those resources. These resources can include wealth, power, status, and opportunities. Many conflict theorists have been strongly influenced by the writings of Karl Marx, who emphasised class conflict as the primary driver of social change. However, contemporary conflict theories also examine other sources of conflict, such as those based on race, ethnicity, gender, age, and sexual orientation. This perspective views social order as often maintained by the dominance of certain groups over others, with dominant groups using their power to protect their interests and maintain the existing social hierarchy. Social change, from this viewpoint, often occurs through the struggles and conflicts between these competing groups as they challenge existing power structures.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Social_Conflict_And_Inequality_Theory
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Conflict_Perspective,
                                Contact_Hypothesis,
                                Exploitation_Theory,
                                Marxist_Theory,
                                New_Urban_Sociology

Annotation: A consumer society is a type of society that promotes the consumption of mass-produced products as a central aspect of social life and individual identity. These societies are characterised by a high level of material consumption and a culture that values the acquisition of goods and services. Consumer societies also generate an ideology of consumerism, which assumes that ever-increasing mass consumption is beneficial for both individuals and the economy. This ideology often links personal happiness and success to the accumulation of material possessions. Consumer culture is heavily influenced by advertising and marketing, which constantly create new desires and needs. While consumer societies can lead to economic growth and innovation, they have also been criticised for their potential negative impacts on the environment, social inequality, and individual well-being due to the emphasis on materialism over other values.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Developmental_And_Economic_Society_Type
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000027

Disjoint class(es): Agrarian_Society,
                                Horticultural_Society,
                                Hunting-and-gathering_Society,
                                Industrial_City,
                                Industrial_Society,
                                Mass_Society,
                                Pastoral_Society

Annotation: The contact hypothesis is an interactionist perspective that states that interracial contact between people of equal status in cooperative circumstances will reduce prejudice. This theory suggests that increased interaction under the right conditions can lead to greater understanding, empathy, and a reduction in negative stereotypes and biases between groups. For contact to be effective in reducing prejudice, several conditions are typically considered important: equal status of the groups in the contact situation, common goals that require intergroup cooperation, intergroup cooperation and interdependence, and the support of authorities or social norms for intergroup contact. When these conditions are met, intergroup contact can challenge existing stereotypes, increase awareness of similarities between groups, and foster positive attitudes, ultimately leading to a decrease in prejudice.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Social_Conflict_And_Inequality_Theory
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Conflict_Perspective,
                                Conflict_Theory,
                                Exploitation_Theory,
                                Marxist_Theory,
                                New_Urban_Sociology

Annotation: Content analysis is a systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale, to identify patterns and themes within communication. This research method is used to analyse the content of various forms of communication, such as texts, images, audio, and video. The process involves developing a coding scheme to categorise the content based on specific variables or themes of interest to the researcher. The data is then systematically analysed to quantify the frequency and relationships between these categories. Content analysis can be used to study a wide range of topics, including media representations, political discourse, cultural trends, and social interactions. Its strength lies in its ability to provide a quantitative and objective analysis of qualitative data, allowing researchers to draw conclusions based on empirical evidence.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Quantitative_Research_And_Data_Collection_Method
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Comparative_Research,
                                Mixed_Method,
                                Quantitative_Research_Method,
                                Secondary_Analysis,
                                Survey,
                                Victimisation_Survey,
                                Vital_Statistics

Annotation: In an experiment, the control group consists of subjects who are not introduced to the independent variable by the researcher. This group serves as a baseline for comparison to the experimental group, which does receive the independent variable. By comparing the outcomes of the control group with those of the experimental group, researchers can determine the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. The control group helps to isolate the impact of the intervention or treatment being studied by accounting for other factors that might influence the results. Random assignment of subjects to the control and experimental groups is crucial for ensuring that the groups are as similar as possible at the beginning of the experiment, thereby increasing the validity of the findings.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Population_And_Research_Aggregate
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000027

Disjoint class(es): Agencies_Of_Socialisation,
                                Convenience_Sample,
                                Experimental_Group,
                                Government,
                                Issei,
                                Luddite,
                                Natural_Environment,
                                Nisei,
                                Population,
                                Random_Sample,
                                Refugee,
                                Representative_Sample

Annotation: Control theory is a view of conformity and deviance that suggests that our connection to members of society leads us to systematically conform to society's norms. This theory, notably developed by Travis Hirschi, posits that individuals are less likely to engage in deviant behaviour when they have strong social bonds. Hirschi identified four elements of social bonds: attachment (strong relationships with others), commitment (investment in conventional activities), involvement (participation in legitimate activities), and belief (acceptance of societal norms and values). According to control theory, these bonds create a stake in conformity, making individuals more likely to adhere to social norms and less likely to engage in deviance because they fear losing these connections and investments. Weak or broken social bonds, on the other hand, can increase the likelihood of deviance.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Sociological_Theories_of_Deviance_And_Control
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Anomie_Theory_Of_Deviance,
                                Labeling_Theory,
                                Routine_Activities_Theory,
                                Social_Constructionist_Perspective,
                                Societal-reaction_Approach

Annotation: A control variable is a factor held constant by a researcher to test the relative impact of an independent variable on a dependent variable. By keeping the control variable the same across different conditions or groups in a study, researchers can better isolate the effect of the independent variable they are interested in. This helps to rule out the possibility that changes in the dependent variable are due to the control variable rather than the independent variable. Using control variables is a key aspect of experimental and quantitative research designs aimed at establishing causal relationships between variables. For example, in a study examining the effect of a new teaching method (independent variable) on student test scores (dependent variable), researchers might control for students' prior academic performance (control variable) to ensure that any observed changes in test scores are indeed due to the new teaching method and not pre-existing differences in academic ability.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Research_Methodology_And_Validity_Quality
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000019

Disjoint class(es): Objectivity,
                                Reliability,
                                Validity,
                                Variable

Annotation: A convenience sample is the arbitrary selection of respondents for a study, based on simple opportunity rather than a rigorous quest for representativeness of the larger population. This non-probability sampling method involves choosing participants who are easily accessible to the researcher, such as students in a classroom or people walking by on the street. While convenience samples are easy and cost-effective to obtain, they are often not representative of the broader population, which limits the generalizability of the research findings. Despite this limitation, convenience samples are frequently used in much applied social research with practical applications, where the primary goal is to gather preliminary data or explore specific issues rather than to make broad generalisations. They can also be useful for pilot studies or when time and resources are limited.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Population_And_Research_Aggregate
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000027

Disjoint class(es): Agencies_Of_Socialisation,
                                Control_Group,
                                Experimental_Group,
                                Government,
                                Issei,
                                Luddite,
                                Natural_Environment,
                                Nisei,
                                Population,
                                Random_Sample,
                                Refugee,
                                Representative_Sample

Annotation: According to world-systems theory, core countries are the most advanced industrial countries, which take the lion's share of profits in the world economic system. These nations possess high levels of industrialisation, technological innovation, and economic diversification. They typically have strong state institutions, well-developed infrastructure, and a highly skilled workforce. Core countries dominate global trade and finance, often exploiting peripheral and semi-peripheral countries for raw materials and cheap labor. Examples of core countries include the United States, Japan, and Germany. This dominance allows core countries to maintain their economic and political power in the global arena, perpetuating a system of unequal exchange. World-systems theory, developed by Immanuel Wallerstein, emphasises the interconnectedness of the global economy and the hierarchical relationship between core, semi-peripheral, and peripheral nations.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Global_And_National_System_Category
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000027

Disjoint class(es): First_World,
                                Low-income_Country,
                                Newly_Industrialising_Country,
                                Peripheral_Country,
                                Semi-peripheral_Country,
                                Third_World

Annotation: Core_Socialisation_And_Learning_Process encompasses the fundamental mechanisms through which individuals acquire cultural knowledge, develop social identities, and learn to function as competent members of society. These processes represent the essential pathways by which social norms, values, beliefs, and behaviours are transmitted from society to individuals and internalised as part of personal identity. The overarching process of socialisation provides the general framework for cultural transmission, while primary and secondary socialisation represent distinct phases with different agents, contexts, and developmental outcomes. Political socialisation represents a specialised domain focusing on civic and political learning. Education serves as both a formal agent of socialisation and a structured process for knowledge transmission. These processes collectively ensure cultural continuity across generations while enabling individual adaptation to social environments. They demonstrate how societies reproduce themselves through systematic processes of cultural learning and identity formation that begin in early childhood and continue throughout the life course.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): Education,
                         Political_Socialisation,
                         Primary_Socialisation,
                         Secondary_Socialisation,
                         Socialisation
Superclass(es): Sociological_Processes_of_Socialisation_and_Development
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000015

Disjoint class(es): Identity_Formation_And_Role_Development_Process,
                                Institutional_And_Transformative_Socialisation_Process

Annotation: Cornucopian Theory is an optimistic viewpoint regarding population growth and resource availability, asserting that technological advancements and human ingenuity will always find ways to overcome resource scarcity and environmental limits. Proponents of this theory believe that as resources become scarcer, human innovation will be stimulated to develop new technologies, discover alternative resources, or improve efficiency, thereby expanding the available supply and preventing catastrophic outcomes often predicted by Malthusian perspectives. They argue that market mechanisms, driven by rising prices of scarce resources, will incentivise innovation and substitution, ensuring continuous progress and an ever-increasing capacity for the Earth to support a growing population. This theory often emphasises the role of free markets, technological innovation, and human adaptability as key solutions to environmental and resource challenges, maintaining that humanity's creativity is an unlimited resource that can always provide for its needs, thus rejecting a pessimistic outlook on the planet's carrying capacity.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Individual_Development_And_Interaction_Theory
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Cognitive_Theory_Of_Development,
                                Disengagement_Theory,
                                Multiple-nuclei_Theory,
                                Sapir-Whorf_Hypothesis,
                                Sociobiology,
                                Symbolic_Interactionism

Annotation: Corporate crime refers to offences committed by large corporations in society in the pursuit of profit or to avoid losses. These crimes are often non-violent but can have significant social, environmental, and economic consequences. Examples of corporate crime include pollution of air and water, false advertising and deceptive marketing practices, violations of health and safety regulations in the workplace, financial fraud, and the production and sale of unsafe products. Unlike street crime, corporate crime is often more complex and difficult to detect and prosecute, as it may involve intricate financial transactions and decision-making processes within large organisations. The impact of corporate crime can be widespread, affecting consumers, employees, the environment, and the public trust in corporations and regulatory agencies.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Criminal_And_Illegal_Activity_Process
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000015

Disjoint class(es): Crime,
                                Cybercrime,
                                Organised_Crime,
                                White-collar_Crime

Annotation: Corporate culture is a branch of management theory that seeks to increase productivity and competitiveness through the creation of a unique organisational culture involving all members of a firm. It encompasses the shared values, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours that characterise an organisation and influence how work is done. A dynamic corporate culture, often involving company events, rituals, and traditions, is thought to enhance employee loyalty, promote group solidarity, and foster a sense of shared identity and purpose among employees. A strong and positive corporate culture can contribute to improved communication, collaboration, innovation, and overall organisational performance. It can also play a role in attracting and retaining talented employees who align with the company's values and mission.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Cultural_Systems_And_Concept
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Cultural_Concept,
                                Cultural_Element,
                                Cultural_Integration,
                                Cultural_Relativism,
                                Cultural_Universal,
                                Culture,
                                Culture_Related_Concept,
                                Global_Village,
                                Sociocultural_Evolution

Annotation: Correlation refers to a regular relationship or association between two dimensions or variables, often expressed in statistical terms. Correlations can be positive or negative. A positive correlation between two variables exists where a high rank or value on one variable is regularly associated with a high rank or value on the other. For example, there is often a positive correlation between years of education and income level. A negative correlation exists where a high rank or value on one variable is regularly associated with a low rank or value on the other. For instance, there might be a negative correlation between the price of a product and the quantity demanded. It is important to note that correlation does not necessarily imply causation; a correlation between two variables may be due to a third, unmeasured variable, or it may simply be a coincidental relationship.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Social_Theory_And_Analysis_Framework
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Demographic_Transition_Theory,
                                Hegemonic_Masculinity,
                                Language,
                                Lifelong_Learning,
                                World-systems_Theory

Annotation: A correlation coefficient is a statistical measure of the degree of correlation between two variables, indicating the strength and direction of their linear relationship. The value of a correlation coefficient typically ranges from -1.0 to +1.0. A coefficient of +1.0 indicates a perfect positive correlation, meaning that as one variable increases, the other variable increases proportionally. A coefficient of -1.0 indicates a perfect negative correlation, meaning that as one variable increases, the other variable decreases proportionally. A coefficient of 0 indicates no linear correlation between the two variables. The closer the coefficient is to +1.0 or -1.0, the stronger the correlation; the closer it is to 0, the weaker the correlation. Correlation does not imply causation, meaning that just because two variables are correlated does not necessarily mean that one causes the other.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Statistical_And_Analytical_Measurement_Quality
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000019

Disjoint class(es): Growth_Rate,
                                Incidence,
                                Mean,
                                Median,
                                Mode,
                                Morbidity_Rate,
                                Mortality_Rate,
                                Prevalence,
                                Zero_Population_Growth_(ZPG)

Annotation: A counterculture is a subculture that deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture, often challenging its dominant norms, values, beliefs, and practices. Countercultures typically emerge as a reaction against mainstream culture and may advocate for alternative lifestyles, social structures, or political systems. Examples of countercultures throughout history include the hippie movement of the 1960s, which rejected mainstream consumerism and traditional values, and various punk subcultures that expressed rebellion through music, fashion, and attitudes. Countercultures can play a significant role in social change by questioning established norms and pushing the boundaries of cultural expression. While some aspects of a counterculture may eventually be absorbed into the mainstream, others may remain as distinct alternatives to the dominant culture.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Alternative_Cultural_Formations_And_behaviour
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Cohabitation,
                                Deviant_Subculture,
                                Fashion,
                                Folkway,
                                Latent_Function

Annotation: Creationism is a literal interpretation of the Bible regarding the creation of man and the universe, used to argue that evolution should not be presented as established scientific fact in educational settings. Adherents of creationism often believe that the universe and all living organisms were created in their present forms by a divine creator, as described in the Book of Genesis. This view directly contradicts the scientific theory of evolution, which explains the diversity of life on Earth through natural selection and descent with modification over vast periods of time. The debate between creationism and evolution has been a long-standing source of controversy, particularly in the United States, with ongoing discussions about the appropriate place of each perspective in school curricula. The scientific community overwhelmingly supports the theory of evolution as the best explanation for the origins and development of life.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Sociological_Cultural_Belief_System
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Animism,
                                Fundamentalism,
                                Monotheism,
                                Polytheism,
                                Reincarnation,
                                Religious_Belief,
                                Theism,
                                Totemism

Annotation: Crime is a violation of criminal law for which formal penalties are applied by some governmental authority. What constitutes a crime is defined by legal statutes at the local, state, or federal level, and these definitions can vary across jurisdictions and change over time. Crimes are typically classified based on their severity, ranging from minor offenses (misdemeanors) to serious felonies. The criminal justice system, including law enforcement agencies, courts, and correctional institutions, is responsible for enforcing criminal laws, apprehending offenders, and administering penalties, which can include fines, probation, imprisonment, or, in some cases, capital punishment. Sociologists study crime from various perspectives, examining its social causes, patterns, and consequences, as well as the functioning of the criminal justice system and its impact on society.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Criminal_And_Illegal_Activity_Process
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000015

Disjoint class(es): Corporate_Crime,
                                Cybercrime,
                                Organised_Crime,
                                White-collar_Crime

Annotation: Criminal_And_Illegal_Activity_Process encompasses systematic patterns of behaviour that violate established legal codes and criminal statutes, representing various forms of organised and individual criminal conduct. These processes involve deliberate actions that transgress legal boundaries and often require coordinated responses from criminal justice systems. The category includes both traditional forms of criminal activity and emerging forms enabled by technological advancement. Crime serves as the general framework for understanding legal violations, while specialised forms like organised crime involve systematic criminal enterprises with hierarchical structures and ongoing operations. Corporate crime represents violations committed by business entities in pursuit of profit, often involving complex regulatory frameworks. Cybercrime demonstrates how technological advancement creates new venues and methods for criminal activity. White-collar crime highlights how criminal processes can occur within legitimate professional contexts. These processes collectively represent challenges to social order and legal authority, requiring sophisticated law enforcement and judicial responses to maintain societal stability and justice.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): Corporate_Crime,
                         Crime,
                         Cybercrime,
                         Organised_Crime,
                         White-collar_Crime
Superclass(es): Sociological_Processes_of_Deviance_and_Control
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000015

Disjoint class(es): Social_Control_And_Response_Process,
                                Social_Deviance_And_Norm_Violation_Process

Annotation: A crowd is a temporary gathering of people who share a common focus of attention and whose members influence one another. Crowds can vary in size, purpose, and emotional intensity. They can form for various reasons, such as attending a sporting event, a concert, a protest, or in response to an emergency. The behaviour of individuals within a crowd can be influenced by factors such as anonymity, social contagion (the spread of emotions and behaviours through a crowd), and the perceived unity of the group. Sociologists study crowds to understand the dynamics of collective behaviour and how individuals act in group settings, which can sometimes differ significantly from their behaviour when alone. Theories of crowd behaviour have evolved over time, from early ideas about the "mob mentality" to more nuanced understandings of the social processes and interactions that occur within crowds.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Temporary_And_Situational_Collective
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000027

Disjoint class(es): —

Annotation: The crude birth rate is the number of live births in a given year for every thousand people in a population. It is a fundamental measure in demography, providing a snapshot of the reproductive activity within a population during a specific time period, typically a year. This rate is calculated by taking the total number of live births in a year, dividing it by the total population (usually the mid-year population), and then multiplying the result by 1,000. The crude birth rate is influenced by a variety of social, economic, and cultural factors, including the age and sex structure of the population, levels of education (especially among women), access to contraception and family planning services, cultural norms and religious beliefs about family size, and economic conditions such as levels of development and urbanisation. A high crude birth rate generally indicates a younger population with high fertility levels, while a low crude birth rate may suggest an aging population or lower fertility rates due to factors like increased access to education and contraception, or changing societal norms. It is considered "crude" because it includes all people in the population in the denominator, regardless of their age or sex, and does not specifically account for the number of women of childbearing age, which is a more refined measure of fertility. Nevertheless, the crude birth rate is a widely used and easily understood indicator of population change and is essential for making comparisons across different populations and tracking demographic trends over time.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Demographic_And_Biological_Identity_Quality
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000019

Disjoint class(es): Birthrate,
                                Crude_Death_Rate,
                                Death_Rate,
                                Life-span,
                                Life_Expectancy,
                                Sex,
                                Sex_Ratio,
                                Total_Fertility_Rate_(TFR)

Annotation: The crude death rate is the number of deaths in a given year for every thousand people in a population. Similar to the crude birth rate, it is a basic but widely used measure in demography that provides an overview of the mortality level within a population during a specific year. The crude death rate is calculated by dividing the total number of deaths recorded in a year by the total population (usually the mid-year population) and then multiplying the result by 1,000. This rate is influenced by various factors such as the age structure of the population (populations with a higher proportion of older people tend to have higher crude death rates), levels of healthcare and sanitation, prevalence of diseases, nutritional status, environmental conditions, and socioeconomic factors. A high crude death rate can indicate a population with poor health conditions, high levels of poverty, or a large proportion of elderly individuals, while a low crude death rate may suggest better healthcare, sanitation, and a younger population structure. Like the crude birth rate, the crude death rate is considered "crude" because it does not take into account the age and sex composition of the population, which can significantly affect mortality levels. For instance, a population with a large number of young people might have a lower crude death rate even if the mortality rates for specific age groups are relatively high. Despite this limitation, the crude death rate is a valuable tool for comparing mortality levels across different populations and for monitoring changes in mortality trends over time.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Demographic_And_Biological_Identity_Quality
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000019

Disjoint class(es): Birthrate,
                                Crude_Birth_Rate,
                                Death_Rate,
                                Life-span,
                                Life_Expectancy,
                                Sex,
                                Sex_Ratio,
                                Total_Fertility_Rate_(TFR)

Annotation: Cultural capital, a concept developed by sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, refers to the types of knowledge, skills, education, and other cultural resources that confer advantages on those who acquire them, providing them with social mobility and status within a society. Bourdieu identified three forms of cultural capital: embodied, objectified, and institutionalised. Embodied cultural capital exists in the form of knowledge and skills that are consciously acquired and passively inherited, such as language proficiency, manners, tastes, and dispositions. These are often learned through socialisation within a particular social class or cultural environment. Objectified cultural capital refers to cultural goods such as books, artworks, musical instruments, and other material objects that can be owned and transmitted. However, the possession of these objects is not sufficient; one must also have the cultural competence to understand and appreciate them to fully benefit from this form of capital. Institutionalised cultural capital consists of academic credentials, professional qualifications, and other forms of formal recognition that legitimate an individual's cultural competence and confer social advantages in the labor market and other social institutions. Cultural capital plays a significant role in social reproduction, as individuals from privileged backgrounds often possess more cultural capital, which helps them succeed in educational systems and gain access to higher-status occupations, thereby perpetuating social inequalities across generations.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Theoretical_Concepts_And_Analytical_Framework
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Data_Analysis_Concept,
                                Factual_Question,
                                Ideal_Type,
                                Inequality_Concept,
                                Interpretative_Sociology,
                                Semiotics

Annotation: Cultural Concepts serve as abstract ideas or mental constructs that sociologists and other scholars use to categorize, analyse, and understand the intangible aspects of culture within human societies. As a meta-category, Cultural Concepts encompass fundamental building blocks such as values, which are culturally defined standards of desirability; norms, which are rules and expectations guiding behaviour; and beliefs, which are shared understandings about the nature of reality. They also include broader ideas like symbols, language, cultural capital, and the very notion of culture itself. These concepts provide a shared vocabulary and analytical framework for researchers to dissect and interpret the complex cultural patterns, meanings, and practices that shape social life. By applying these concepts, sociologists can explore how culture is created, maintained, transmitted across generations, and how it influences individual identities, social interactions, and societal structures, enabling a systematic study of diverse cultural phenomena.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Cultural_Systems_And_Concept
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Corporate_Culture,
                                Cultural_Element,
                                Cultural_Integration,
                                Cultural_Relativism,
                                Cultural_Universal,
                                Culture,
                                Culture_Related_Concept,
                                Global_Village,
                                Sociocultural_Evolution

Annotation: Cultural Diversity refers to the variety and richness of different cultures, subcultures, and ethnic groups that coexist within a given society or across the globe. It encompasses the wide array of unique values, norms, beliefs, languages, customs, traditions, social practices, and forms of expression that distinguish these groups from one another. This diversity contributes to the multifaceted nature of human society, reflecting the myriad ways in which people organise their lives, understand the world, and express themselves. Cultural diversity is often celebrated for enriching society by fostering innovation, creativity, a broader range of perspectives, and a more vibrant cultural landscape, thereby enhancing cultural vitality and mutual understanding. However, it can also present challenges related to social cohesion, intergroup relations, and potential conflicts arising from differing values, competing interests, or the historical legacies of power imbalances and discrimination. Sociologists study cultural diversity to understand how different groups maintain their distinct identities while interacting within a larger social framework, and how societies manage diversity to promote inclusion, equality, and social harmony, moving beyond assimilationist models towards valuing cultural pluralism and multiculturalism, and addressing issues like prejudice and segregation.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Social_And_Cultural_Identity_Quality
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000019

Disjoint class(es): Gender_Identity,
                                Identity,
                                Personality,
                                Self,
                                Sexuality,
                                Social_Self

Annotation: Cultural Elements are the fundamental components or building blocks that collectively constitute a culture, shaping the way of life for members of a society. These elements can be broadly categorised into two main types: material culture and non-material culture. Material culture comprises the tangible, physical aspects of a culture, such as tools, technology, clothing, food, architecture, and other artifacts that people create and use. Non-material culture, on the other hand, consists of the intangible aspects, including values, norms, beliefs, language, symbols, customs, traditions, and knowledge. Both material and non-material elements are interconnected and mutually influential, reflecting a society's adaptations to its environment, its historical development, and its shared understandings of the world. Understanding these distinct but intertwined cultural elements is crucial for analysing how cultures are structured, how they function, and how they evolve over time, providing a comprehensive view of a society's way of life.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Cultural_Systems_And_Concept
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Corporate_Culture,
                                Cultural_Concept,
                                Cultural_Integration,
                                Cultural_Relativism,
                                Cultural_Universal,
                                Culture,
                                Culture_Related_Concept,
                                Global_Village,
                                Sociocultural_Evolution

Annotation: Cultural integration refers to the close relationship and interconnectedness among various elements of a cultural system, such as its norms, values, beliefs, symbols, and practices. In a well-integrated culture, these different components are largely consistent with one another and work together to create a coherent and stable social order. For example, the core values of a society might be reflected in its laws, its educational system, its religious beliefs, and its everyday customs. When cultural integration is high, there is a greater degree of consensus and shared understanding among members of the society regarding how to behave and what is considered important. This can contribute to social cohesion and stability. However, no culture is perfectly integrated, and there can often be tensions and contradictions between different cultural elements, particularly in diverse and rapidly changing societies. The study of cultural integration helps sociologists understand how different parts of a culture fit together and how changes in one area can affect other aspects of the cultural system.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Cultural_Systems_And_Concept
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Corporate_Culture,
                                Cultural_Concept,
                                Cultural_Element,
                                Cultural_Relativism,
                                Cultural_Universal,
                                Culture,
                                Culture_Related_Concept,
                                Global_Village,
                                Sociocultural_Evolution

Annotation: Cultural lag is a concept in sociology that describes the fact that cultural elements change at different rates, which can sometimes disrupt a cultural system and lead to social strain or conflict. This term was popularised by William F. Ogburn, who argued that material culture (such as technology) often changes more rapidly than non-material culture (such as values, beliefs, norms, and laws). When a significant gap develops between these two aspects of culture, it can create a period of maladjustment or social problems as the non-material culture struggles to adapt to the changes in the material culture. For example, the rapid development of the internet and social media has outpaced the development of social norms and laws to govern online behaviour, leading to issues such as cyberbullying, privacy concerns, and the spread of misinformation. Cultural lag highlights the dynamic and sometimes uneven nature of cultural change and the challenges societies face in adapting their values and social structures to new technologies and other material innovations.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Cultural_Organisation_And_Adaptation_Quality
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000019

Disjoint class(es): Cultural_Pluralism,
                                Culture_Shock

Annotation: Cultural_Organisation_And_Adaptation_Quality encompasses characteristics related to how societies organise their cultural systems, manage cultural change, and adapt to new circumstances. These qualities include aspects of cultural integration, adaptation to cultural differences, and the challenges societies face in managing cultural diversity and change. They represent both the stability of cultural systems and their capacity for adaptation and transformation. These qualities highlight how societies balance cultural continuity with change and how they manage the tensions that arise from cultural diversity, technological advancement, and social transformation.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): Cultural_Lag,
                         Cultural_Pluralism,
                         Culture_Shock
Superclass(es): Social_Organisation_And_Collective_Quality
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000019

Disjoint class(es): Social_Cohesion_And_Integration_Quality

Annotation: Cultural pluralism refers to the coexistence of several subcultures within a given society on equal terms, where no single culture dominates and all are recognised and respected for their distinct contributions. In a culturally pluralistic society, different ethnic, racial, religious, and other cultural groups are able to maintain their unique identities, traditions, and practices while participating fully in the broader society. This is often contrasted with assimilation, where minority groups are expected to adopt the culture of the dominant group. Cultural pluralism emphasises the value of diversity and the benefits of having a society enriched by multiple perspectives and traditions. It requires a degree of tolerance and mutual respect among different cultural groups and often involves policies and practices that protect the rights and promote the inclusion of all cultural groups within the society. The concept of a "salad bowl" is often used as a metaphor for cultural pluralism, where different ingredients (cultures) are mixed together but retain their individual flavors and characteristics, rather than being completely blended into a single entity like in a "melting pot" (often used to describe amalgamation).
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Cultural_Organisation_And_Adaptation_Quality
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000019

Disjoint class(es): Cultural_Lag,
                                Culture_Shock

Annotation: Cultural relativism is a principle in social science that emphasises the viewing of people's behaviour from the perspective of their own culture, rather than judging it based on the standards of another culture. It suggests that different cultures have different norms, values, beliefs, and practices that are meaningful and functional within their own context. Therefore, to understand and analyse human behaviour, it is essential to consider the cultural framework in which it occurs. Cultural relativism encourages an attitude of openness and understanding towards cultural differences, helping to avoid ethnocentrism, which is the tendency to view one's own culture as superior and to judge other cultures based on one's own cultural norms. While cultural relativism is important for promoting cross-cultural understanding and tolerance, it does not necessarily imply that all cultural practices are equally acceptable or morally justifiable. Sociologists often use cultural relativism as a methodological tool to study and describe different cultures without imposing their own cultural biases.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Cultural_Systems_And_Concept
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Corporate_Culture,
                                Cultural_Concept,
                                Cultural_Element,
                                Cultural_Integration,
                                Cultural_Universal,
                                Culture,
                                Culture_Related_Concept,
                                Global_Village,
                                Sociocultural_Evolution

Annotation: Cultural reproduction refers to the process by which a society transmits dominant knowledge, values, beliefs, and social inequalities from one generation to another. This transmission occurs through various social institutions, including the family, education system, media, and religion. Cultural reproduction theory, particularly associated with the work of Pierre Bourdieu and Basil Bernstein, highlights how the dominant culture in a society tends to be perpetuated, often reinforcing existing power structures and social hierarchies. For example, the education system may prioritise certain forms of knowledge and cultural capital that are more readily accessible to children from privileged backgrounds, thereby contributing to their continued success and the reproduction of social class differences across generations. Similarly, the media can play a role in shaping and reinforcing dominant ideologies and cultural norms. Understanding cultural reproduction helps sociologists analyse how social inequalities are maintained and transmitted over time, even in the absence of overt discrimination.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Sociological_Processes_of_Cultural_Exchange_and_Innovation
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000015

Disjoint class(es): Amalgamation,
                                Cultural_Transmission,
                                Diffusion,
                                Discovery,
                                Innovation,
                                Invention

Annotation: Cultural_Systems_And_Concept encompasses the fundamental theoretical frameworks and analytical tools used to understand how culture operates as a system of shared meanings, practices, and organisational principles within society. This class includes both the abstract conceptual apparatus (Cultural_Concept, Culture_Related_Concept) and core cultural phenomena (Culture, Cultural_Element, Cultural_Universal) that constitute the building blocks of cultural analysis. It incorporates principles of cultural interpretation and evaluation (Cultural_Relativism, Cultural_Integration) alongside mechanisms of cultural transmission and change (Sociocultural_Evolution). The class also addresses contemporary manifestations of cultural systems, including specialised organisational cultures (Corporate_Culture) and global cultural connectivity (Global_Village). This grouping represents the comprehensive theoretical and empirical foundation for understanding culture as both an analytical concept and lived social reality.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): Corporate_Culture,
                         Cultural_Concept,
                         Cultural_Element,
                         Cultural_Integration,
                         Cultural_Relativism,
                         Cultural_Universal,
                         Culture,
                         Culture_Related_Concept,
                         Global_Village,
                         Sociocultural_Evolution
Superclass(es): Sociological_Social_Relationships_And_Organisation
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Alternative_Cultural_Formations_And_behaviour,
                                Kinship_And_Family_Organisation_System,
                                Social_Theory_And_Analysis_Framework

Annotation: Cultural transmission is the process by which one generation passes culture to the next, ensuring the continuity of societal norms, values, beliefs, traditions, and practices. This process occurs through various mechanisms, including socialisation within the family, formal education in schools, informal learning from peers and community members, and exposure to media and cultural products. Language is a fundamental tool for cultural transmission, allowing for the communication of knowledge, history, and cultural values across generations. Traditions, rituals, and storytelling also play important roles in passing down cultural heritage. Cultural transmission is essential for the survival and development of societies, as it enables each new generation to learn from the experiences and knowledge of those who came before them, contributing to social stability and cultural evolution. The effectiveness of cultural transmission can influence the rate and direction of cultural change within a society.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Sociological_Processes_of_Cultural_Exchange_and_Innovation
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000015

Disjoint class(es): Amalgamation,
                                Cultural_Reproduction,
                                Diffusion,
                                Discovery,
                                Innovation,
                                Invention

Annotation: Cultural universals are general practices, behaviours, and social institutions that are found in every culture across the globe, despite the vast differences that exist between them. These commonalities suggest fundamental aspects of human life and social organisation that are shared across diverse societies. While the specific forms these universals take can vary greatly from one culture to another, the underlying patterns are consistent. Examples of cultural universals include the presence of language and some form of communication, the existence of family structures (though their forms may differ), systems of social norms and rules governing behaviour, rituals and ceremonies (often related to birth, death, and marriage), some form of art or aesthetic expression (such as music, dance, or visual arts), and mechanisms for dealing with the supernatural or religious beliefs. The study of cultural universals helps sociologists and anthropologists identify core elements of human culture and understand the fundamental ways in which societies organise themselves to meet basic human needs and address common life experiences. The existence of these universals suggests that despite cultural diversity, there are underlying commonalities in human nature and social life.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Cultural_Systems_And_Concept
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Corporate_Culture,
                                Cultural_Concept,
                                Cultural_Element,
                                Cultural_Integration,
                                Cultural_Relativism,
                                Culture,
                                Culture_Related_Concept,
                                Global_Village,
                                Sociocultural_Evolution

Annotation: Culture encompasses the values, beliefs, ceremonies, ways of life, norms, symbols, and material goods characteristic of a given group or society. Like the concept of society, the notion of culture is very widely used in sociology, as well as in other social sciences, particularly anthropology. Culture is one of the most distinctive properties of human social association, differentiating human societies from animal societies in its complexity and transmission through learning rather than solely through instinct. It includes everything that is learned and shared by the members of a society, shaping their behaviour and their understanding of the world. Culture can be broadly divided into material culture, which includes tangible objects created by a society (such as tools, technology, clothing, and art), and nonmaterial culture, which includes intangible aspects such as ideas, values, beliefs, norms, language, and social institutions. Culture provides a framework for social interaction, defines what is considered acceptable and unacceptable behaviour, and gives meaning to people's lives. It is dynamic and constantly evolving through processes of innovation, diffusion, and adaptation.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Cultural_Systems_And_Concept
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Corporate_Culture,
                                Cultural_Concept,
                                Cultural_Element,
                                Cultural_Integration,
                                Cultural_Relativism,
                                Cultural_Universal,
                                Culture_Related_Concept,
                                Global_Village,
                                Sociocultural_Evolution

Annotation: Culture-Related Concepts serve as a higher-level classification within an ontology for terms that describe specific phenomena, theories, or applications concerning culture that are more abstract or interpretative than basic cultural elements or types of cultural diversity. This category groups concepts that help to analyse how culture operates, changes, or is interpreted within society. Examples include phenomena like cultural lag (the discrepancy between material and non-material culture change), cultural integration (the coherence among cultural elements), cultural reproduction (how culture is transmitted and perpetuated), and culture shock (personal disorientation from unfamiliar ways of life). It also encompasses theoretical frameworks such as cultural relativism and ethnocentrism, which relate to how cultures are viewed and judged. This category provides a structured home for concepts that illuminate the dynamic and complex nature of culture beyond its fundamental components.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Cultural_Systems_And_Concept
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Corporate_Culture,
                                Cultural_Concept,
                                Cultural_Element,
                                Cultural_Integration,
                                Cultural_Relativism,
                                Cultural_Universal,
                                Culture,
                                Global_Village,
                                Sociocultural_Evolution

Annotation: Culture shock is the feeling of surprise and disorientation that is experienced when people witness cultural practices, values, norms, and beliefs that are significantly different from their own. This phenomenon typically occurs when individuals are immersed in a new and unfamiliar cultural environment, such as when traveling to a foreign country, moving to a different region within their own country with distinct cultural norms, or even when experiencing a significant change in social environment, like starting a new job with a very different organisational culture. The disorientation arises from the lack of familiar cues and expectations that guide behaviour in one's own culture, leading to feelings of uncertainty, anxiety, and sometimes even hostility towards the new cultural context. Culture shock can affect various aspects of daily life, including communication styles, social etiquette, food, customs, and even basic assumptions about how the world works. While often challenging, experiencing and overcoming culture shock can also lead to personal growth, increased cultural awareness, and a deeper understanding of both one's own culture and others. The process of adapting to a new culture involves learning new norms, values, and behaviours, and gradually adjusting one's own perspectives and practices to fit the new environment.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Cultural_Organisation_And_Adaptation_Quality
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000019

Disjoint class(es): Cultural_Lag,
                                Cultural_Pluralism

Annotation: Cybercrime refers to criminal activities carried out by means of electronic networks, primarily the internet, or involving the use of new information technologies such as computers and mobile devices. These crimes exploit the digital realm to commit offenses that can range from individual acts to large-scale organised operations. Emergent forms of cybercrime include electronic money laundering, which involves concealing the origins of illegally obtained money through digital transactions; personal identity theft, where an individual's personal information is stolen and used for fraudulent purposes; electronic vandalism, which involves damaging or disrupting computer systems or data; and the monitoring of electronic correspondence, such as hacking into email accounts or intercepting online communications. Other common types of cybercrime include phishing scams, malware attacks, denial-of-service attacks, and the distribution of illegal content. The borderless nature of cyberspace makes cybercrime particularly challenging to investigate and prosecute, often requiring international cooperation among law enforcement agencies. The increasing reliance on digital technologies in all aspects of life has made cybercrime a significant and growing concern for individuals, businesses, and governments worldwide.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Criminal_And_Illegal_Activity_Process
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000015

Disjoint class(es): Corporate_Crime,
                                Crime,
                                Organised_Crime,
                                White-collar_Crime

Annotation: Cyberspace refers to electronic networks of interaction between individuals at different computer terminals, linking people at a level – in a dimension – that has no regard for territorial boundaries or physical presence. It is a virtual realm created by interconnected computer networks, primarily the internet, where individuals can communicate, interact, and exchange information regardless of their physical location. Cyberspace encompasses a wide range of online activities, including social networking, email communication, online shopping, virtual gaming, and accessing information through the World Wide Web. The nature of cyberspace allows for the formation of online communities based on shared interests, identities, or goals, transcending geographical limitations. This virtual environment has become an increasingly significant space for social interaction, economic activity, and cultural exchange in modern society. The lack of physical presence and territorial boundaries in cyberspace raises unique social, ethical, and legal challenges related to issues such as privacy, security, and governance.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Social_Social_Spatial_Region
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000006

Disjoint class(es): Back_Region,
                                Defended_Neighborhood,
                                Megalopolis,
                                Metropolis,
                                Postindustrial_City,
                                Preindustrial_City,
                                Public_Sphere,
                                Squatter_Settlement,
                                Suburb

Annotation: Data Analysis Concepts refer to the theoretical and methodological principles, techniques, and procedures that underpin the systematic process of inspecting, cleansing, transforming, and modelling data in social research with the goal of discovering useful information, informing conclusions, and supporting decision-making. This category encompasses various statistical measures, including measures of central tendency (like mean, median, mode) and measures of dispersion (like range, standard deviation, interquartile range), which summarise and describe the distribution of data. It also includes concepts related to understanding relationships between variables, such as correlation (the degree to which variables vary together) and causation (where one variable directly influences another), as well as the logical reasoning (causal logic) behind establishing such relationships. Furthermore, it covers key aspects of measurement quality, including the operational definition of concepts, and principles that ensure the reliability (consistency) and validity (accuracy) of data analysis, as well as specific metrics like incidence and prevalence in demographic or epidemiological studies. These concepts are crucial for interpreting empirical material, testing hypotheses, and drawing valid and reliable conclusions about social phenomena in sociological inquiry.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): —
Superclass(es): Theoretical_Concepts_And_Analytical_Framework
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000017

Disjoint class(es): Cultural_Capital,
                                Factual_Question,
                                Ideal_Type,
                                Inequality_Concept,
                                Interpretative_Sociology,
                                Semiotics

Annotation: Data_Collection_And_Fieldwork_Process encompasses systematic methods for gathering empirical information and evidence about social phenomena through direct engagement with research subjects and settings. These processes involve researchers actively collecting primary data through various techniques that range from highly structured to completely unstructured approaches. They include both quantitative methods that seek to measure and enumerate social phenomena and qualitative methods that aim to understand meaning, experience, and social context. These processes require researchers to establish relationships with research subjects, navigate ethical considerations, and develop skills in data collection techniques. The choice among these methods depends on research questions, theoretical orientation, and practical constraints. These processes are fundamental to empirical sociology and provide the foundation for evidence-based understanding of social life and social phenomena.
Annotation source: (editor)
Annotation type: skos:definition
Language: en
Subclass(es): Census,
                         Interview,
                         Observation,
                         Oral_History,
                         Participant_Observation,
                         Snowball_Sampling
Superclass(es): Sociological_Research_and_Inquiry_Process
BFO 2020 Superclass: BFO_0000015

Disjoint class(es): Research_Design_And_Analytical_Process,
                                Research_Validation_And_Quality_Assurance_Process